Mental Matters

Health Conditions

Find information on various health conditions affecting people of all ages. This category covers causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and management options for physical illnesses and chronic diseases. Get insights to help you understand different health challenges and make informed decisions about your wellbeing.

The eight most common food allergens in black icon format

Causes of Food Allergy

Food Allergy, Health Conditions /

Causes of Food Allergy The causes of food allergy are related to the immune system mistakenly identifying certain food proteins as threats. Food allergy can develop at any age, but it most commonly begins in infancy or early childhood. The reasons why some people develop food allergies while others don’t are not fully understood, but a combination of genetics, environment, and immune system development play key roles. Immune System Reaction The immune system produces IgE antibodies in response to a food protein On subsequent exposure, these antibodies trigger the release of histamine and other chemicals, leading to allergic symptoms This reaction happens quickly—within seconds to minutes of eating the allergen Genetic and Family Factors Food allergies often run in families If one parent has an allergy, the child has an increased risk; if both do, the risk is even higher Children with eczema, hay fever, or asthma are more likely to develop food allergies Early Life Exposure Delayed introduction of allergenic foods in infants was once common but may increase risk Recent guidelines recommend early, gradual introduction (e.g., of peanut butter) under medical guidance in high-risk infants Breastfeeding and gut health may influence immune tolerance, although the evidence is still evolving Environmental Factors Western lifestyles may contribute to rising allergy rates due to reduced exposure to microbes The “hygiene hypothesis” suggests a lack of exposure to everyday germs may skew the immune system towards allergic responses Pollution and changes in the food supply may also influence sensitisation Other Risk Factors Severe eczema in infants is a strong predictor of future food allergies Existing allergies (e.g., to dust mites or pollen) may increase sensitivity to certain plant-based foods due to cross-reactivity Some children with milk or egg allergies are more likely to develop multiple food allergies over time Causes of Food Allergy Understanding the causes of food allergy helps guide prevention efforts, early diagnosis, and research into better treatments. While some risk factors can’t be changed, others—like early food exposure and dietary diversity—are now being studied for their protective potential. [Next: Symptoms of Food Allergy →]

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Child scratching red itchy bumps on legs from food allergy reaction

Symptoms of Food Allergy

Food Allergy, Health Conditions /

Symptoms of Food Allergy The symptoms of food allergy vary in severity, timing, and body systems affected. Food allergy symptoms typically appear within minutes to two hours after eating the trigger food and can range from mild itching to severe, life-threatening reactions. Early recognition and swift action are vital. Mild to Moderate Symptoms Itching or tingling in the mouth and lips Skin reactions such as hives (urticaria), redness, or swelling Nasal congestion, sneezing, or watery eyes Nausea, stomach cramps, or diarrhoea Vomiting, especially in children These symptoms can occur alone or in combination. In some cases, they may progress to more severe reactions if not treated quickly. Severe Symptoms (Anaphylaxis) Anaphylaxis is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. Signs include: Swelling of the tongue or throat, leading to difficulty breathing Hoarseness or trouble speaking Wheezing or chest tightness Drop in blood pressure, causing dizziness or fainting Fast or weak pulse Pale or blue skin (in children) Without treatment, anaphylaxis can escalate rapidly and become fatal. Adrenaline auto-injectors (e.g., EpiPen) should be used at the first sign of serious symptoms, followed by urgent medical attention. Delayed Reactions Some food allergies, particularly non-IgE-mediated types, can cause symptoms several hours after eating: Persistent vomiting Diarrhoea or blood in stool Eczema flare-ups Poor growth or feeding difficulties in infants These are more common in cow’s milk or soy allergies in babies and may require an elimination diet under supervision. Oral Allergy Syndrome In some people, particularly those with pollen allergies, eating raw fruits and vegetables may cause: Mild mouth itching or swelling Usually resolves quickly and does not cause systemic symptoms Caused by cross-reactivity between pollen proteins and food proteins Cooking the food usually removes the allergenic protein. When to Seek Help | Symptoms of Food Allergy Tracking and recognising the symptoms of food allergy helps prevent serious outcomes and ensures that proper care is always close at hand. [Next: Diagnosis of Food Allergy→]

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Skin prick test for food allergy diagnosis on forearm

Diagnosis of Food Allergy

Food Allergy, Health Conditions /

Diagnosis of Food Allergy The diagnosis of food allergy involves a detailed medical history, physical examination, and allergy testing. Because food allergy symptoms can resemble other conditions—like food intolerances or gastrointestinal disorders—accurate diagnosis is essential to avoid unnecessary food restrictions and to prevent life-threatening reactions in true allergy sufferers. Medical History and Symptom Review A doctor or allergy specialist will ask: What foods were eaten before symptoms appeared How quickly symptoms developed What type of symptoms occurred (e.g., rash, swelling, breathing issues) Whether reactions have worsened over time If there is a family history of allergies, asthma, or eczema This helps determine if the reaction is consistent with an IgE-mediated allergy (fast onset and potentially severe) or a non-IgE-mediated allergy (delayed and typically digestive or skin-related). Skin Prick Testing A small amount of the suspected allergen is placed on the skin The skin is pricked, and the area is observed for swelling or redness Results are available within 15–20 minutes A positive result suggests sensitisation but does not confirm clinical allergy alone This test is safe and commonly used in children and adults. Blood Tests (Specific IgE) Measures the level of allergy antibodies (IgE) to specific foods Useful for guiding diagnosis when skin testing is not possible May be less specific than skin testing Helps rule in or out foods when there’s uncertainty High IgE levels suggest a stronger reaction risk, but levels do not always correlate with severity. Oral Food Challenge Considered the gold standard for diagnosis The suspected food is given in small, increasing amounts under medical supervision Monitored closely for any reaction Helps confirm or rule out allergy in borderline or unclear cases This must only be performed in clinics with emergency facilities, especially for high-risk allergens like peanuts or shellfish. Elimination Diets (For Non-IgE Allergies) Used to diagnose delayed or digestive-type allergies The suspected food is removed from the diet for 2–4 weeks Reintroduced under supervision to see if symptoms return Often used for milk, soy, or wheat in infants and toddlers Diagnosis of Food Allergy The diagnosis of food allergy should never be based on self-testing or guesswork. Proper medical evaluation ensures safe, effective management and reduces the risk of unnecessary dietary restrictions. [Next: Treatment of Food Allergy →]

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Woman scratching allergic rash on arms with allergy medication on table

Treatment of Food Allergy

Food Allergy, Health Conditions /

Treatment of Food Allergy The treatment of food allergy focuses on strict avoidance of trigger foods and quick action if accidental exposure occurs. While there is currently no cure for food allergy, advances in immunotherapy and emergency preparedness have significantly improved outcomes and quality of life for affected individuals. Avoiding the Allergen The mainstay of treatment is complete avoidance of the identified allergen Read food labels carefully—look out for hidden ingredients and cross-contamination warnings Inform schools, nurseries, restaurants, and family members about the allergy Be cautious with takeaways, shared utensils, and buffet settings Patients must always carry emergency medication, even if they avoid the food reliably. Emergency Treatment: Adrenaline (Epinephrine) The first-line treatment for anaphylaxis Delivered via auto-injector (e.g., EpiPen, Jext, Emerade) Doctors must administer treatment at the first sign of severe symptoms like difficulty breathing, throat swelling, or dizziness Doctors may give a second dose if there’s no improvement within 5–10 minutes After using an auto-injector, the person should go to the emergency room immediately—even if symptoms improve. Antihistamines and Steroids Antihistamines (e.g., cetirizine or loratadine) may help relieve hives or itching Doctors sometimes use steroids to reduce prolonged reactions, particularly in non-IgE allergies These are not substitutes for adrenaline in anaphylaxis Long-Term Management Consult a clinical allergist or immunologist Create an allergy action plan for home, school, and travel Wear a medical alert bracelet if the allergy is severe Consider desensitisation (oral immunotherapy) in specialist centres—this involves giving tiny, increasing amounts of the allergen under medical supervision to reduce sensitivity Nutritional Support A dietitian may be needed to ensure proper nutrition, especially for children Calcium, protein, or vitamin B12 may be lacking if dairy, eggs, or multiple foods are eliminated Safe food alternatives should be introduced to prevent malnutrition or feeding issues Treatment of Food Allergy The treatment of food allergy is about much more than avoidance—it’s a daily lifestyle supported by education, readiness, and appropriate medical care. [Next: Complications of Food Allergy →]

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Person scratching red, inflamed rash on forearm due to allergic reaction

Complications of Food Allergy

Food Allergy, Health Conditions /

Complications of Food Allergy The complications of food allergy can affect physical health, mental wellbeing, and quality of life. While many people manage their allergies well, food allergy carries the risk of serious and even fatal reactions, especially without proper diagnosis, avoidance, and emergency planning. Anaphylaxis The most severe complication of food allergy Can occur within minutes of exposure Causes airway swelling, low blood pressure, rapid pulse, and shock Requires immediate treatment with adrenaline and emergency medical care Common triggers: peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish, milk, and eggs Some people may experience biphasic reactions, where symptoms return hours after initial treatment. Hospital observation is advised for several hours after anaphylaxis. Nutritional Deficiencies Strict avoidance diets, especially in young children, may lead to: Calcium and vitamin D deficiency (from avoiding dairy) Iron or B12 deficiency (from avoiding eggs or meat) Growth delays if multiple major food groups are excluded These risks are best managed by involving a paediatric dietitian or nutritionist. Social and Emotional Impact Children with food allergies may feel isolated or anxious at school, parties, or outings Parents often report high levels of stress related to meal planning and fear of accidental exposure Adolescents are at particular risk of risk-taking behaviour and may hide their allergy due to peer pressure Ongoing support from healthcare providers, schools, and mental health professionals can help build confidence and independence. Feeding Disorders Children who have had severe allergic reactions early in life may develop food aversions or feeding difficulties Sensory sensitivities, gagging, or refusal to try new foods may emerge Behavioural feeding therapy can support recovery Economic and Lifestyle Burden Specialist foods, medications, and repeated doctor visits can be costly Travel may require extensive planning and communication with airlines or hotels Families often need to alter routines to ensure food safety Despite these challenges, with a clear diagnosis and ongoing management plan, many people with food allergies live full and healthy lives. Complications of Food Allergy The complications of food allergy underscore the importance of early identification, access to emergency care, and a supportive community. Education, awareness, and medical guidance can reduce risks and promote safe, confident living. [Next: Back to Overview →]

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Sick woman lying on couch using tissue for flu symptoms

Flu

Flu, Health Conditions /

Flu The Flu, short for influenza, is a contagious viral infection that affects the respiratory system. Including the nose, throat, and lungs. Influenza spreads rapidly during seasonal outbreaks and can range from mild to severe. While most healthy individuals recover within a week or two. The flu can be dangerous for vulnerable groups such as young children, the elderly, pregnant women, and people with chronic illnesses. Flu is caused by influenza viruses, which mutate regularly. This is why the flu vaccine is updated annually to match circulating strains. Symptoms often start suddenly and may include fever, chills, cough, sore throat, body aches, and extreme fatigue. In some cases, the respiratory illness leads to complications like pneumonia, sinus infections, or exacerbation of underlying conditions like asthma or diabetes. Flu Although flu and the common cold share some symptoms, the illness is typically more intense and has a faster onset. Early diagnosis and appropriate care reduce the risk of complications, and annual vaccination remains the best method of prevention. Raising awareness about this seasonal virus helps individuals protect themselves and their communities, particularly during peak flu season. How Influenza Spreads The contagious virus is primarily spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or speaks. These droplets can be inhaled directly or settle on surfaces like doorknobs, phones, or tables. When someone touches a contaminated surface and then touches their nose, mouth, or eyes, the virus can enter the body. Because the flu is so contagious, it often spreads quickly in schools, workplaces, and other crowded environments. High-Risk Groups While most healthy people recover from the flu with rest and hydration. Certain groups are more likely to experience serious complications. These include young children, older adults over the age of 65. Pregnant women and people with chronic conditions such as asthma, heart disease, or diabetes. Individuals with weakened immune systems are also at greater risk. For them, the flu can lead to hospitalization or even become life-threatening, especially if it develops into pneumonia or triggers other health issues. Prevention and Protection The most effective way to prevent the flu is through annual vaccination, which is updated each year based on the strains most likely to circulate. Alongside vaccination, simple hygiene habits make a significant difference. Regular handwashing, covering coughs and sneezes with a tissue or elbow, and disinfecting commonly touched surfaces all help reduce the risk of transmission. Avoiding close contact with those who are sick and staying home when experiencing flu-like symptoms are also key strategies for protecting both individual and public health. [Next: Causes of Flu →]

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Microscopic view of influenza viruses affecting human lungs

Causes of Flu

Flu, Health Conditions /

Causes of Flu The causes of flu are rooted in infection by influenza viruses, which spread through droplets released when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. Flu is highly contagious and can also spread via contact with contaminated surfaces, especially in crowded places like schools, offices, and public transport. Influenza Virus Types There are four main types of influenza viruses: Mutation and Antigenic Drift Influenza viruses constantly mutate, changing their surface proteins (haemagglutinin and neuraminidase). This process, called antigenic drift, allows the virus to evade the immune system, which is why previous exposure or vaccination may not provide full protection against future strains. How It Spreads Flu is mainly transmitted through: Droplet spread, from coughing or sneezing Surface contamination, where the virus lives for hours on doorknobs, mobile phones, and other shared items Direct contact, such as shaking hands with an infected person A person is most contagious in the first 3 to 5 days after symptoms begin but can spread the virus even before symptoms appear. Seasonal Patterns Flu outbreaks occur: During winter months in most countries With peaks between June and August in South Africa and between December and February in the northern hemisphere In tropical regions, flu can circulate year-round with multiple peaks Causes of Flu The causes of flu are deeply connected to how easily the virus spreads and evolves. Understanding its transmission helps people take steps to protect themselves and those around them. [Next: Symptoms of Flu →]

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Man sneezing into tissue showing flu symptoms

Symptoms of Flu

Flu, Health Conditions /

Symptoms of Flu The symptoms of flu often develop suddenly and are more intense than those of a common cold. Flu typically begins with a high fever and quickly progresses to include a range of respiratory and systemic symptoms. While many people recover within a few days to two weeks, others may develop complications that require medical attention. Common Symptoms Fever or chills Dry cough that may worsen over time Sore throat and difficulty swallowing Muscle aches and joint pain Headache, often severe Extreme tiredness or fatigue Nasal congestion or runny nose Loss of appetite Some people also experience: Sweating and clammy skin Watery eyes Nausea or vomiting (especially in children) Not everyone with flu has a fever. Elderly individuals, in particular, may present without fever but still have other severe symptoms. Differences Between Flu and Cold While colds develop gradually, the flu tends to start abruptly. Fatigue, body aches, and high fever are much more common and severe with flu. Colds rarely cause the exhaustion and muscle pain that flu typically brings. Symptom Cold Flu Onset Gradual Sudden Fever Rare Common Fatigue Mild Severe Body aches Uncommon Common and intense Cough Mild or moderate Persistent and dry Symptoms in Children Children with flu may show: Irritability or crying more than usual Refusal to eat or drink High fever, sometimes over 39°C Seizures, in rare cases (febrile seizures) Vomiting and diarrhoea are more common in children than in adults. When to Seek Medical Help Urgent care is needed if: Breathing becomes difficult or rapid Chest pain or pressure develops Symptoms improve then suddenly worsen Severe dehydration occurs Confusion or dizziness is present Symptoms of Flu Recognising the symptoms of flu allows for early treatment, especially in high-risk individuals. Antiviral medications are most effective when started within the first 48 hours of symptoms. [Next: Diagnosis of Flu→]

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Sick girl with thermometer and tissues indicating flu diagnosis

Diagnosis of Flu

Flu, Health Conditions /

Diagnosis of Flu The diagnosis of flu is often made clinically, based on symptoms and history, particularly during known outbreaks or flu season. Flu typically presents with sudden onset fever, chills, fatigue, cough, and muscle aches. Because symptoms overlap with other viral infections, doctors sometimes use tests to confirm the presence of influenza virus—especially in high-risk patients or those with complications. Clinical Assessment Healthcare providers assess: Symptom onset and severity Exposure to flu, such as recent contact with someone who is ill Time of year, especially during known influenza outbreaks in the community The combination of high fever, body aches, dry cough, and fatigue often points strongly to flu, even without testing. Rapid Diagnostic Tests Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) can detect flu virus proteins in 10–15 minutes They are quick but may miss some cases (lower sensitivity), especially early in infection Useful in settings like emergency rooms or care homes to guide treatment decisions Molecular Tests (PCR) Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is more accurate than RIDTs Detects small amounts of viral RNA and can identify the specific strain Often used in hospitals or reference labs Turnaround time is usually a few hours to a day Testing Is Most Helpful When: The patient is in a high-risk group (elderly, pregnant, chronically ill) Hospital admission is required The illness may affect public health responses (e.g., in an outbreak) Another diagnosis needs to be ruled out (e.g., COVID-19 or bacterial pneumonia) Differential Diagnosis Doctors must rule out: Common cold, which has milder symptoms COVID-19, which overlaps heavily with flu and often requires concurrent testing RSV, especially in children and the elderly Pneumonia, particularly if chest pain, productive cough, or shortness of breath is present In most mild cases, lab confirmation is not necessary unless symptoms persist or worsen. Diagnosis of Flu The diagnosis of flu combines clinical judgement with selective testing, depending on severity, context, and risk. Early identification supports timely treatment and helps prevent spread to others. [Next: Treatment of Flu →]

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Person in robe holding tea cup as flu treatment

Treatment of Flu

Flu, Health Conditions /

Treatment of Flu The treatment of flu focuses on symptom relief, rest, and preventing complications. Flu is typically self-limiting in healthy people, but those at risk of severe illness may require antiviral medications and closer monitoring. Early treatment can speed recovery and reduce the chance of hospitalisation. Self-Care and Supportive Treatment Most people recover at home with: Plenty of rest Hydration, with water, herbal teas, or clear broths Paracetamol or ibuprofen, to reduce fever, headache, and muscle aches Cough suppressants or lozenges for throat irritation Saline sprays or steam inhalation for congestion Avoid aspirin in children due to the risk of Reye’s syndrome. Antiviral Medications Antiviral drugs, such as: Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) Zanamivir (Relenza) Baloxavir (Xofluza) (not yet available in all regions) These medications work best when started within 48 hours of symptom onset. They may: Shorten illness by 1–2 days Reduce symptom severity Lower risk of complications like pneumonia Antivirals are especially recommended for: Elderly individuals (65+) Pregnant or postpartum women People with asthma, diabetes, heart disease, or weakened immune systems Hospitalised patients Hospital Treatment Severe cases may require: Oxygen therapy IV fluids for dehydration Antibiotics if secondary bacterial infections develop Close observation in intensive care units (for those with respiratory failure or complications) Alternative and Herbal Remedies While some people use vitamin C, echinacea, or zinc, evidence of their effectiveness is mixed. These should not replace proven treatments and may interfere with prescribed medications. Prevention is Key | Treatment of Flu Even effective treatment does not replace the value of prevention. Annual vaccination remains the most important tool for reducing the severity and spread of flu. The treatment of flu relies on timely care, rest, and—in higher-risk patients—early antiviral intervention. Most people recover fully, but knowing when to escalate care is essential. [Next: Complications of Flu →]

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