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Healthcare worker performing Ebola test on child in outdoor rural setting.

Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola Virus Disease, Health Conditions /

Ebola Virus Disease Ebola virus disease is a rare but deadly illness caused by infection with the Ebola virus. First identified in 1976 in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. Ebola virus disease has caused several outbreaks across Central and West Africa, with high death rates and devastating impacts on communities and healthcare systems. The virus spreads through direct contact with bodily fluids. Such as blood, vomit, faeces, urine, or saliva from an infected person. It can also be transmitted via contaminated surfaces or objects, like needles. Unlike airborne viruses, Ebola does not spread through the air, which means close contact is usually required for transmission. Ebola often starts with flu-like symptoms, making early detection difficult. As the disease progresses, it can lead to severe internal bleeding, organ failure, and shock. In past outbreaks, the mortality rate has ranged between 25% and 90%, depending on the virus strain, the speed of diagnosis, and the level of medical care available. While the disease has mostly affected countries like Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of Congo. This remains a global concern due to the potential for international spread through travel or trade. South Africa, although not directly impacted by past outbreaks, has protocols in place for border screening, isolation, and rapid response if a case is detected. Ebola Virus Disease Healthcare workers are especially vulnerable during outbreaks, as they come into close contact with infected individuals. The 2014–2016 West Africa epidemic highlighted the need for better infection control, community education, and investment in local health systems. Recent advancements have led to the development of effective Ebola vaccines, which are now used in high-risk areas during outbreaks. Continued research is also underway to improve treatment and strengthen preparedness. Understanding Ebola virus disease is essential for early recognition, containment, and support. Education, vigilance, and rapid response remain the most effective tools in preventing widespread transmission. [Next: Causes of Ebola Virus Disease →]

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Contaminated waterway surrounded by litter in an urban area contributing to disease spread.

Causes of Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola Virus Disease, Health Conditions /

Causes of Ebola Virus Disease The causes of Ebola virus disease begin with the Ebola virus itself—a member of the filovirus family. There are several known species of the virus, but the Zaire strain is the most lethal and responsible for the majority of recorded outbreaks. Ebola virus disease is zoonotic, meaning it originates in animals and can be transmitted to humans. Fruit bats are considered the natural hosts of the Ebola virus. These bats can carry the virus without becoming ill themselves. The disease is thought to enter human populations when people come into contact with infected animals—usually through hunting, butchering, or eating bushmeat from bats, monkeys, or other wildlife. Once the virus infects a human, it spreads quickly through direct contact with bodily fluids from an infected person. This includes blood, vomit, faeces, saliva, urine, breast milk, and semen. The virus enters the body through broken skin, mucous membranes, or contaminated medical instruments like syringes or needles. The risk of transmission is highest in healthcare settings without proper protective equipment. Caregivers, family members, and funeral workers are also at high risk if they come into contact with the body of someone who died of Ebola. Traditional burial practices involving physical contact with the dead can significantly contribute to the spread of the disease during outbreaks. Once inside the body, the virus attacks the immune system, damages blood vessels, and can cause internal bleeding. The virus replicates rapidly, overwhelming the body’s defences and triggering a severe inflammatory response. This is what leads to the most dangerous symptoms, including haemorrhaging and organ failure. Causes of Ebola Virus Disease The incubation period—the time between exposure and the onset of symptoms—is usually between 2 and 21 days. During this time, the infected person is not contagious. Transmission begins only once symptoms appear, which allows for containment if cases are identified early. Environmental and social factors also play a role in outbreaks. Poverty, poor healthcare infrastructure, misinformation, and mistrust of authorities can make containment more difficult. In South Africa and other countries, the presence of these factors in neighbouring regions is why preparedness and education are essential, even without current cases. Understanding the causes of Ebola virus disease helps in breaking the chain of transmission. By reducing human-animal contact, strengthening surveillance, and improving public health responses, the spread of the virus can be controlled and prevented. [Next: Symptoms of Ebola Virus Disease →]

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Healthcare workers in protective gear attending to a patient with suspected Ebola symptoms.

Symptoms of Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola Virus Disease, Health Conditions /

Symptoms of Ebola Virus Disease The symptoms of Ebola virus disease usually appear between 2 and 21 days after exposure to the virus. Most people begin to experience signs around day 7 to 10. Ebola virus disease starts with general symptoms that resemble many other infections, making early diagnosis challenging without laboratory testing. Initial symptoms include: Sudden onset of fever Intense weakness or fatigue Muscle and joint pain Headache Sore throat As the illness progresses, more severe symptoms develop. These may include: Vomiting and diarrhoea (often leading to dehydration) Stomach pain Rash Red eyes Chest pain Difficulty breathing or swallowing In some patients, the virus causes internal and external bleeding, which may present as bruising, bleeding gums, or blood in vomit and stool. These haemorrhagic symptoms occur in later stages and are a sign of severe disease. One of the defining features of Ebola virus disease is how quickly the condition can deteriorate. After the initial flu-like phase, patients may decline rapidly, developing shock, multi-organ failure, and death. Without prompt medical care, many patients do not survive beyond the second week of symptoms. Not everyone with Ebola experiences bleeding, and the severity of symptoms can vary. Some individuals may recover, especially with early diagnosis and supportive care, while others may succumb despite treatment. Survivors often face long-term effects, including fatigue, joint pain, vision problems, and psychological trauma. Symptoms of Ebola Virus Disease Symptoms alone cannot confirm Ebola. Many tropical diseases—such as malaria, typhoid, and Lassa fever—present similarly in the early stages. This overlap makes clinical diagnosis difficult and highlights the need for rapid testing and isolation once Ebola is suspected. In South Africa and other countries with no recent outbreaks, health professionals remain on alert for travellers presenting with these symptoms, particularly if they’ve come from or been near affected regions. Airport screenings and travel history assessments are key tools in early identification and response. Recognising the symptoms of Ebola virus disease early is critical to containing an outbreak. Public health messaging, swift isolation, and proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE) can stop transmission and save lives. [Next: Diagnosis of Ebola Virus Disease→]

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Positive Ebola virus test result in a blood sample held by gloved hand.

Diagnosis of Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola Virus Disease, Health Conditions /

Diagnosis of Ebola Virus Disease The diagnosis of Ebola virus disease is challenging due to its non-specific early symptoms, which mimic other illnesses common in tropical regions. Fever, weakness, and gastrointestinal issues are shared with conditions such as malaria, typhoid fever, or dengue. Because of this, accurate and prompt laboratory testing is essential in confirming Ebola virus disease. Healthcare professionals begin by taking a detailed medical history, including recent travel, contact with sick individuals, and any exposure to known Ebola cases or funerals in affected areas. If the patient meets certain risk criteria and shows compatible symptoms, they are treated as a suspected case until test results confirm or rule out the disease. Diagnosis is made through laboratory tests on blood or tissue samples. The most common and reliable method is RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction), which detects viral RNA. This test can confirm the presence of the Ebola virus within a few hours, depending on the laboratory setup. Other diagnostic methods include: Antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) IgM and IgG antibody tests (used in later stages or in survivors) Virus isolation in high-containment labs (mainly for research) All testing must be done in biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) laboratories due to the high risk of infection. In outbreak zones, mobile labs are sometimes deployed to bring testing closer to affected communities, reducing delays in diagnosis. Diagnosis of Ebola Virus Disease In South Africa, suspected Ebola cases are managed with extreme caution. The National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD) oversees Ebola preparedness and has protocols in place for isolating suspected cases and transporting samples for testing. South African healthcare workers are trained to use full personal protective equipment (PPE) and follow strict infection control guidelines. During outbreaks, diagnosis also includes contact tracing. Anyone who has had close contact with an infected individual is monitored for 21 days—the virus’s maximum incubation period. Identifying and monitoring contacts is a critical part of controlling further transmission. Accurate diagnosis of Ebola virus disease saves lives. It allows for immediate isolation of infected patients, protection of healthcare workers, and targeted public health interventions. Without confirmation, outbreaks can spiral quickly, overwhelming fragile healthcare systems and spreading panic. [Next: Treatment of Ebola Virus Disease →]

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Treatment of Ebola Virus Disease

Treatment of Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola Virus Disease, Health Conditions /

Treatment of Ebola Virus Disease The treatment of Ebola virus disease focuses on supportive care to maintain the patient’s vital functions while the body fights the virus. Although Ebola virus disease has no guaranteed cure, early intervention significantly improves survival chances. Treatment must begin as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed or strongly suspected. Supportive care includes: Rehydration with oral or intravenous fluids to combat dehydration from vomiting and diarrhoea Electrolyte replacement to maintain balance and prevent organ failure Oxygen therapy for patients with breathing difficulty Blood pressure support to prevent or treat shock Pain and fever control with appropriate medications Antibiotics or antifungals, if secondary infections are present Nutritional support is also essential, as patients are often too weak to eat or drink. In severely ill individuals, intensive care with close monitoring may be necessary. Recent outbreaks have led to major improvements in treatment options. Two promising experimental therapies, Inmazeb and Ebanga, have been approved for use. These monoclonal antibody drugs work by helping the immune system neutralise the virus. They must be given early in the infection to be most effective. Additionally, Ebola vaccines—such as Ervebo—have played a critical role in outbreak control. While not a treatment, vaccination reduces the risk of spread among frontline workers and contacts of infected individuals. Ring vaccination strategies, where contacts and contacts-of-contacts are vaccinated, have proven effective in halting transmission. Treatment of Ebola Virus Disease In South Africa, treatment facilities are prepared for isolation and supportive care, but full treatment of Ebola—including experimental drugs—is usually coordinated with international health partners like the WHO. Any suspected cases would trigger a national response, including specialised transport and treatment in designated centres. Community education and trust are also vital components of care. In past outbreaks, mistrust of healthcare workers, fear of hospitals, and misinformation have made treatment difficult. Public awareness campaigns, partnerships with local leaders, and culturally sensitive communication improve cooperation and outcomes. Although Ebola remains a dangerous illness, survival rates have improved dramatically when patients receive proper care early. The treatment of Ebola virus disease has advanced, offering hope not only for individual recovery but also for regional preparedness and resilience. [Next: Complications of Ebola Virus Disease →]

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Medical team in hazmat suits treating a patient in quarantine due to Ebola complications.

Complications of Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola Virus Disease, Health Conditions /

Complications of Ebola Virus Disease The complications of Ebola virus disease can be devastating and long-lasting, even for those who survive the initial infection. While some patients recover fully, many experience lingering physical and psychological effects. The severity of Ebola virus disease means that complications often begin during the acute illness and may persist for months or years afterward. During the acute phase, common complications include: Severe dehydration, which can lead to kidney failure Internal and external bleeding, increasing the risk of haemorrhagic shock Sepsis, a life-threatening immune response to infection Multi-organ failure, particularly affecting the liver, kidneys, and heart Respiratory distress, due to inflammation or fluid overload Secondary infections, like pneumonia or bloodstream infections These complications often result from the virus’s impact on the immune system and vascular system. Patients may rapidly deteriorate without intensive care. Even with the best medical support, the mortality rate remains high in some outbreaks. For those who survive, post-Ebola syndrome is a recognised condition. This includes a range of physical and mental health problems, such as: Chronic fatigue Muscle and joint pain Blurred vision or eye inflammation, which can lead to blindness if untreated Hearing loss Memory loss and difficulty concentrating Depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) In many survivors, the virus lingers in areas like the eyes, central nervous system, and reproductive organs. Ebola has been detected in semen months after recovery, raising concerns about sexual transmission and necessitating prolonged monitoring and guidance. Social complications are also serious. Survivors may face stigma, rejection, or isolation from their communities, even after they are no longer infectious. Some lose their jobs or homes during illness, and many grieve the loss of family members. These social effects can delay full recovery and contribute to long-term mental health issues. Complications of Ebola Virus Disease In South Africa and other countries, planning for Ebola-related complications includes not only clinical care but also psychosocial support. Mental health services, reintegration programmes, and access to rehabilitation are important to help survivors rebuild their lives. Healthcare workers are also at high risk for long-term effects. Those infected while caring for others often carry physical and emotional scars, and support for their recovery is essential for rebuilding trust and capacity in the health system. Preventing the complications of Ebola virus disease starts with early detection, immediate care, and long-term follow-up. Survivors deserve comprehensive support—not just to heal, but to thrive after surviving one of the world’s most feared viral diseases. [Next: Back to Overview →]

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Woman looking at broccoli on a plate, showing signs of an eating disorder

Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders, Health Conditions /

Eating Disorders Eating disorders are serious mental health conditions that involve unhealthy and extreme eating behaviours. These behaviours often revolve around food, body weight, and body image. This disorder can affect anyone, regardless of age, gender, race, or background, and they frequently have both physical and psychological consequences. The most well-known types include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Each has distinct symptoms but all involve a harmful relationship with food. People with thisdisorders often experience deep emotional distress, guilt, or shame around ingesting, even if outwardly they appear to be coping. These disorders are not about vanity or a simple desire to be thin. They are complex mental health conditions rooted in emotional, psychological, and often social issues. Genetics, trauma, bullying, perfectionism, and media pressure can all contribute to the development of disordered eating habits. In South Africa, these disorders are increasingly recognised as a public health concern, particularly among teenagers and young adults. Social media, unrealistic beauty standards, and the stigma around mental illness often make it harder for people to seek help. In both urban and rural settings, these disorders can go undiagnosed due to lack of awareness or access to mental health services. Eating Disorders Early signs may include skipping meals, excessive exercising, frequent dieting, or becoming overly preoccupied with weight. Over time, the physical effects may become more obvious—such as dramatic weight changes, digestive issues, fatigue, or even heart problems. This disorder can be life-threatening if left untreated. But with the right support—through therapy, medical care, and family involvement—recovery is possible. The sooner the disorder is recognised, the better the chances of full recovery. Understanding eating disorders is the first step toward creating compassionate, supportive environments where people feel safe to seek help and rebuild their relationship with food and their bodies. [Next: Causes of Eating Disorders →]

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Woman sitting distressed near a weighing scale, symbolising psychological causes of eating disorders

Causes of Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders, Health Conditions /

Causes of Eating Disorders The causes of eating disorders are complex and usually involve a combination of psychological, biological, and environmental factors. While each person’s experience is unique, certain patterns often emerge. Understanding the causes of eating disorders is vital for prevention, early intervention, and effective treatment. One of the most significant psychological contributors is low self-esteem. Many individuals who develop eating disorders struggle with feelings of inadequacy, perfectionism, or a strong need for control. They may believe that controlling their food intake or body shape is the only way to feel valued or accepted. Trauma is another major factor. People who have experienced emotional, physical, or sexual abuse are at greater risk. In such cases, disordered eating may become a coping mechanism—a way to manage painful emotions or reclaim control over the body. Biological factors also play a role. Research shows that eating disorders may run in families, suggesting a genetic component. Chemical imbalances in the brain, particularly involving serotonin and dopamine, are thought to affect mood, appetite, and impulse control—all of which influence eating behaviours. Cultural and environmental pressures contribute significantly. In today’s world, where thinness is often equated with beauty and success, people—especially young women—may feel pressured to conform to unrealistic body ideals. Constant exposure to filtered images, diet culture, and social comparison fuels body dissatisfaction and unhealthy behaviours. Peer pressure and bullying, especially about weight or appearance, can also trigger disordered eating. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable, as their self-image is still forming. In boys, eating disorders may be linked to muscle dysmorphia—an obsession with gaining muscle mass rather than becoming thinner. In South Africa, cultural dynamics vary, but modern beauty standards have become increasingly influential across different communities. Many South Africans report struggling with body image due to social media, weight stigma, or conflicting cultural messages around body size. Causes of Eating Disorders Family environment matters too. Households where weight is frequently discussed, dieting is common, or emotional expression is discouraged may unknowingly contribute to disordered eating patterns. Parents with eating disorders may also model unhealthy behaviours that children then adopt. Academic or career stress can be another trigger, particularly in high-achieving individuals. Food may become one of the few areas they feel they can control. Over time, rigid behaviours around food can escalate into a full-blown disorder. Understanding the causes of eating disorders helps break the myth that they’re simply about food. They are, at their core, emotional conditions requiring empathy, psychological support, and a holistic approach to healing. [Next: Symptoms of Eating Disorders →]

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Teenager in bathroom showing distress, a possible sign of eating disorders

Symptoms of Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders, Health Conditions /

Symptoms of Eating Disorders The symptoms of eating disorders vary depending on the type and severity of the condition. However, there are common warning signs that may signal disordered eating. Identifying these early can help prevent serious physical and psychological complications. The symptoms may be subtle at first, but over time they can affect nearly every aspect of a person’s life. In anorexia nervosa, one of the most recognisable signs is significant weight loss or being underweight for one’s age and height. People with anorexia often restrict calories, avoid entire food groups, or develop rituals around food—such as cutting it into tiny pieces or eating very slowly. They may exercise excessively, fear gaining weight, and deny that they are thin. In contrast, bulimia nervosa is marked by cycles of bingeing and purging. During a binge, a person eats large amounts of food in a short time, often feeling out of control. This is followed by purging—through vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or over-exercising—to compensate for the calories consumed. People with bulimia may maintain a normal weight, making the disorder harder to detect. Binge-eating disorder involves frequent episodes of eating large quantities of food without purging. It is often accompanied by feelings of shame, guilt, or depression. People may eat in secret and feel powerless to stop, even when uncomfortably full. Other symptoms of eating disorders can include: Obsession with weight, calories, or dieting Avoiding meals or eating in secret Mood swings, irritability, or social withdrawal Physical signs like hair loss, dry skin, or irregular menstruation Digestive issues such as constipation or bloating Fatigue, dizziness, or fainting Cold intolerance, due to poor circulation Calluses on knuckles from induced vomiting (in bulimia) In men and boys, symptoms may include an intense focus on muscle mass, protein intake, and workout routines. They may also engage in disordered eating to achieve a specific physique, often driven by social or athletic pressure. Symptoms of Eating Disorders In South Africa, many symptoms of eating disorders go unnoticed, especially in communities where awareness is low. Cultural stigma around mental illness and body image can prevent people from speaking up or seeking help. Additionally, underweight individuals may be praised for being “disciplined,” further complicating early detection. Eating disorders can affect people of any body size. It’s a myth that you must be underweight to have one. Even those with a normal or higher body weight can suffer from serious emotional and physical consequences. Recognising the symptoms of eating disorders early makes a huge difference. With timely support, individuals can begin the journey toward recovery and build a healthier relationship with food, their bodies, and themselves. [Next: Diagnosis of Eating Disorders→]

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Diagnosis of Eating Disorders

Diagnosis of Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders, Health Conditions /

Diagnosis of Eating Disorders The diagnosis of eating disorders requires a careful and sensitive approach. Since eating disorders involve both physical and emotional components, diagnosis is typically made through a combination of medical evaluation, psychological assessment, and observation of eating behaviours. Early diagnosis improves the chances of successful treatment and recovery. Doctors usually begin by asking detailed questions about eating habits, weight history, body image, and exercise routines. Patients may be reluctant to disclose certain behaviours due to guilt, denial, or shame, so it’s important for healthcare providers to create a non-judgemental and supportive environment. A physical examination is often the first step. Doctors look for signs such as low weight, irregular heart rate, dry skin, brittle nails, or swelling in the face or hands. Blood pressure, temperature, and hydration levels may also be assessed. Blood tests can help check for anaemia, electrolyte imbalances, or liver and kidney function issues—all of which are common in individuals with long-standing eating disorders. In cases of suspected anorexia nervosa, doctors check for extremely low body mass index (BMI), delayed puberty, or menstrual irregularities. For bulimia nervosa, physical signs such as dental erosion, sore throat, and gastrointestinal issues may be present due to repeated vomiting or laxative use. In binge-eating disorder, rapid weight gain and high cholesterol or blood sugar levels might alert the doctor to underlying patterns. Psychological assessments are also essential. A mental health professional may use structured interviews or questionnaires like the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) or the SCOFF screening tool to identify disordered thinking, body image concerns, and unhealthy behaviours related to food. Family members or caregivers can provide valuable insight, especially if the individual is a child or adolescent. Observing food rituals, secretive eating, or extreme focus on weight may prompt a referral for specialist care. Diagnosis of Eating Disorders In South Africa, access to formal diagnosis may vary depending on location and healthcare resources. In rural areas or low-income communities, eating disorders may be misdiagnosed as simple weight loss or stress-related issues. Language barriers and stigma may further delay proper assessment. It’s important to rule out other conditions that could mimic symptoms of eating disorders, such as thyroid disease, diabetes, depression, or gastrointestinal disorders. A holistic view ensures that nothing is overlooked and treatment is appropriately tailored. Accurate diagnosis of eating disorders enables timely intervention. It also validates the person’s struggle and opens the door to therapeutic support. Without a diagnosis, many individuals suffer in silence—convinced they are simply weak or out of control—when in fact they are battling a real, serious condition. [Next: Treatment of Eating Disorders →]

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